Conflicting environments and environmental conflicts
The ecological environment was first identified as a potential cause of violent conflict in the 1987 United Nations report "Our Common Future". Since then, many authors from various disciplines have examined the causal links between the duration and intensity of conflicts and the scarcity - or abundance - of resources, without a scientific consensus on the subject. Some recognize the role of renewable natural resources as a direct cause of violent conflict, as a catalyst and indirect cause of conflict, or as a consequence of the political, economic, and physical vulnerability of communities. Given the growing interest in the links between the environment and security, it is also important to investigate the effects, direct and indirect, of conflicts on resources in Lebanon.
The Jiyeh oil spill is an example of the direct consequences of war on the environment. On July 12th, 2006, Israel launched a war against Lebanon for 34 days and on July 15th, 2006, the Israeli air forces bombed a thermal power station in Jiyeh 30 km south of Beirut. According to The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the bombing of the Jiyeh Power Plant resulted in the spillage of approximately 15,000 tonnes of heavy fuel oil into the ocean thus raising concerns about the contamination of soil and water resources. This episode also raises the question of the targetting of vital resources in armed conflicts. In addition to the oil spill, the brutal events of July 2006 lead to the destruction of civilian infrastructures, namely water reservoirs that suffered different types of damage which, in turn, could lead to more conflicts and tensions between local communities. Climate change and environmental degradation are exacerbating the existing pressure on natural resources, affecting agriculture, public health, energy, and water, critical sectors of the Lebanese economy. The country is already experiencing water stress. Agriculture is responsible for 60% of total water demand. It is threatened by water shortages due to wastage, pollution, over-pumping, and the projected increase in demand for domestic use, resulting in decreased availability for irrigation.
The refugee crisis, another direct consequence of armed conflicts, holds its share of repercussions on the environment. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNCHCR) estimates that refugees are now present in more than 1,738 localities in over 133 locations, Syrian refugees, alone, account for over one-quarter of the resident population, which already hosts a significant number of Palestinian refugees. The influx of refugees increases pressure on the provision of basic services and access to resources such as water and electricity. It increases competition over resources, leading to environmental stress. Northern Lebanon and the Beka'a region host two-thirds of the country's refugees. These are the poorest regions in Lebanon and are particularly vulnerable to climatic and environmental hazards, such as flooding. The prolonged presence of refugees in light of severe resource constraints, strong sectarian divides, and the lack of an official government policy regarding the refugee influx that has resulted in the dispersed settlement of Syrian refugees including in Palestinian camps, brought about substantial refugee-host community tensions.
Building Environmental Peace
Many researchers and peace experts have focused on the links between the environment and peace, seeing shared natural resources as a tool for conflict resolution. The concept of "Environmental peacebuilding" is based on the idea that "the mutual benefits of cooperation go beyond the self-serving logic of conflict and can contribute to the pacification of coupled human-natural systems in a sustainable and multifaceted manner" (Dresse et al., 2019). A central premise of this concept is that environmental issues represent an opportunity to shift from rivalry to partnership by moving from administrative, political-territorial boundaries to ecosystem boundaries.
As we have seen above, natural resources can be a source of opposition between different states. However, transboundary environmental cooperation seems to bring states together bridging the way for dialogue and negotiations thus preventing future tensions and promoting transnational partnership. There are many ways to encourage dialogue and reflection: the creation of commissions, placed under the aegis of the international community, which in turn plays the role of mediator, drafting of laws, adoption of programs, etc.
For instance, the sharing of the Nile did not lead to armed conflict due to the process of consultation led by the concerned parties that eventually resulted in the establishing of cooperative structures such as the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) which brings together ministers from all the countries through which the Nile flows, thus establishing a dialogue and a climate of trust that has made it possible to put an end to dissension and to put forward common concerns regarding water pollution.
In the same way, Lebanon has been and still is part of negotiations on its shared water resources. One example would be the Orontes River (Nahr el Assi) that has its source in Lebanon. It then crosses Syria and Turkey to finally emerge in the Mediterranean. Despite the importance of its flow, the river does not contribute to the development of the Hermel region. Lebanese farmers draw water from the Orontes watershed but the withdrawals remain modest. The Lebanese-Syrian relations, their disagreement about the sharing of this water resource, the Syrian occupation, and its trusteeship consecrated in 1990, have also hindered the exploitation of the river by the Lebanese (Blanc, 2006). Nevertheless, an agreement between the two neighboring countries on the sharing of the Orontes waters was established in 1994, entitled "Agreement between the Lebanese Republic and the Syrian Arab Republic on the Sharing of the Waters of the Orontes River flowing in the Lebanese territory".
On a local scale, the resolution of conflicts arising when the populations are not interested in the exploitation of the resources but suffer inconveniences carried out by unscrupulous multinationals, for example, can be more delicate. Resolving such conflicts lies in the awareness of these companies, which must integrate the local populations and their needs in their strategies and have a sustainable approach to the exploitation of the resources, in order not to impoverish a territory that does not belong to them. The implementation of local democracy and participatory planning can help the inhabitants to invest in this commercial activity, and thus ease the tensions resulting from a feeling of injustice. The equitable sharing of natural resources is a fundamental element for conflicts resolution and prevention. The creation of spaces for dialogue and negotiation methods can therefore help to eradicate poverty and establish responsible and optimized resource use.
Moreover, authors like Hadi Jaafar (Jaafar, H et al., 2020) suggest that alleviating environmental stress resides in good resources management, the reduction of the over-use of natural resources through environmentally sound technologies, and last but not least, the decrease of population. While awaiting the safe return of all refugees, efforts must be undertaken to frame the use of natural resources. In the case of water, Jaafar suggests the establishment of a clear legislation that would implement metering and pricing schemes for domestic water consumption.
Finally, conflict resolution is not enough. According to the UNEP, conflicts related to natural resources are twice as likely to resume within the first five years of peace. In that sense, it is necessary to set up a multi-scale policy to protect the environment by preventing the depletion of natural resources and to raise awareness not only among local communities but also among the international community - leaders, populations, companies - to limit the conflicts that will inevitably arise in the coming decades.